Book Rec: Tattoos on the Heart

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2015, book review, Christianity, Gregory Boyle, inspiring, my scribblings, poverty, rec list, Tattoos on the Heart

Recently, I had the good fortune to learn about Father Gregory Boyle’s “Tattoos on the Heart” from my supervisor. It sounded interesting, so I went to my handy-dandy Amazon Prime account and bought it immediately. (Bargain shopping for books on Amazon is more than a habit for me; it’s a lifestyle.) Once it was delivered, I started reading… and I could barely put it down.

“Admit something:
Everyone you see, you say to them,
‘Love me.’
Of course you do not do this out loud…”

-Hafez

Boyle’s book is a powerful, insightful read discussing his work with gang members in the Los Angeles area over a period of three decades. Father Boyle moved to the area as a priest and expanded his mission to serving those most in need in his parish. The book is a moving example of Christianity “with its workboots on.” Boyle’s insight into Christ’s boundless compassion, redeeming grace, and endless patience make the reader laugh with his irreverence and cry with his profundity.

“How much greater is the God we have than the one we think we have.”

Boyle’s beliefs about God’s love, identity, compassion, and grace (summarized quite brilliantly in his quote above) is infused throughout the book. Without these beliefs, Boyle writes, he would never have undertaken this work. Without first experiencing and understanding Christ’s boundless compassion and grace, Boyle would never have been able to show it to others – especially those whom society deems unfit. He learned the hard way, however, that going out and preaching about Jesus to anyone who was standing around wasn’t the way to disciple people. Instead, Boyle met them where they were and created much-needed opportunities for them. He founded Homeboy Industries – a foundation with multiple businesses that hire gang members looking to leave the life. As people in the neighborhood saw what Boyle had to offer, they began to seek him out. And the rest, as they say, is history.

“…[T]he principle suffering of the poor is shame and disgrace. It is a toxic shame – a global sense of failure of the whole self. … The ‘no-matter-whatness’ of God dissolves the toxicity of shame and fills us with tender mercy.”

Additionally, “Tattoos on the Heart” shines a light on the harsh realities of the culture of poverty and the harmful effects it has on those who live around and below the poverty line. Boyle’s descriptions of the trials and tribulations his parishioners face are hard to read about, and they challenge the stereotypes about gang members and impoverished minorities that many people hold (whether they are aware of them or not). Boyle describes in detail the lives of his friends who experience such great shame about themselves and their lives that they self-identify as bad people and see no way out of the lifestyle they are living. He tells stories of heavily tattooed men who receive nasty looks in restaurants, people with no marketable job skills because no one would ever hire them, and others who don’t know how to exist outside of juvenile detention or prison. People who have survived abuse at the hands of strangers, enemy gang members, and loved ones. They don’t believe they are worthy or lovable, by God or man. But even when humans are judgmental (and church-going folk can sometimes be the worst), God extends his love and mercy to those that other humans deem unworthy, because Jesus “had room for everybody in his compassion.”

“Jesus was not a man for others. He was one with others. … The strategy of Jesus is not centered in taking the right stand on issues, but rather standing in the right place – with the outcast and those relegated to the margins.”

This is what “Tattoos on the Heart” is all about – standing with those in need. To paraphrase another quote from Boyle, we must learn how to have compassion for everything that poor people must face without judging the ways they try to survive it. That can be a difficult perspective to take. It can challenge beliefs and opinions that have formed throughout our lives. It might contradict one’s political party of choice’s platform. But what do you gain by changing your perspective; what do others gain? Challenge yourself with the thoughts in this book, and ask yourself where you stand. Do you take the right stand on issues? Or do you stand in the right place? How can you do your best to stand in the right place for those around you who are in need?

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“Even Though You’re a Girl”

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2013, feminism my way, my scribblings, on my soapbox, the fam

Sexism. This particular topic has been on my mind for quite some time now. Recently, one of my (female) supervisors asked me if I have ever before had the experience of someone telling me I couldn’t do something or disrespecting my opinion because I am a woman. After several moments of thought, I had to answer honestly that no, I hadn’t ever had that experience previously in my twenty-three years of life.

THAT realization stuck with me for quite some time. How fortunate am I? Oh, I feel incredibly blessed. Growing up, I was always told that I could achieve anything I wanted, be anything I wanted, do anything I wanted. And that was the end of the sentence. There wasn’t even an “even though you’re a girl” attached to the end! My parents, my grandparents, my good friends – they have always been encouraging to me. They taught me, supported me, helped me every step of the way. And I know that no one is more proud of my accomplishments than my family.

I started thinking that not everyone is so lucky. There are girls and women in the world, in my country, in my state and city, that are not so fortunate. They haven’t grown up being told how amazing and strong they are, how many options they have, how much potential to achieve anything they want. Those little girls and grown women deserve to hear that they can do things as well or better than a man, that doors shouldn’t be shut in their faces or salaries decreased just because of their XX chromosomes.

I appreciate the can-do spirit my family gave me, the belief that I have the ability and responsibility to hone my skills and excel in my field of choice. I never went into a situation feeling inferior because I am a girl. I also appreciate the advice my mother gave me when I was a bit older, though. She said that women have to work twice as hard and perform better than a man to be given the same opportunities. I believe that. Those words, in part, inspired me to overachieve in order to present myself as a competitive prospect for any position I may desire. Is it fair? Not at all.

I hope one day that changes. I hope that in the future, my children will be able to compete on equal ground with other job candidates regardless of sex. How can I make that happen for them? By changing people’s minds and hearts today. People’s opinions about sexism don’t change just because a new law gets passed through Congress or the Supreme Court reaches a certain verdict. Those things may change people’s actions, but it doesn’t make them believe in it. The way we do that is by teaching our children and providing good examples for them to emulate.

I appreciate the work that my family did to make me believe that I could do anything I set out to do. It is my hope that one day I can impart that same belief in my daughter. I want her to grow up with the world as her oyster, with no one looking down on her because of her genetic makeup. I want her to know that she doesn’t have to be a wife or a mother but that she can be those things if she wants. I want her to know that she can be an astronaut or a nurse or a neurosurgeon or a farmer or a police officer or the president of the United States. She can achieve those things because she is not intrinsically inferior to men. I want her to be strong and independent, not to be overly concerned about gender norms or stereotypes. I want my daughter to feel safe and respected in her society and to help create that society.

I want to teach my son to respect women, to be mannerly, considerate, and sincere. I don’t want my son to make “get in the kitchen” jokes about women or rape jokes, not only because he respects women too much to do so but because he respects himself too much to do so. I want him to have that same can-do, high-achieving spirit with the same lack of concern about gender stereotypes. He, too, can achieve whatever he wants and works hard to achieve. I want him to help create a society in which women feel safe and respected, in which “equal opportunity” truly exists.

Parents, teach your children to respect one another and themselves, regardless of gender or sex. That is where real change will occur.

The Role of Christianity, Heroism, and Fate in Beowulf and Paradise Lost

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my scribblings, on my soapbox, philosophizing

Here is my British Literature paper for your viewing pleasure. If you care. Which you probably don’t. And that’s more than ok.

The Role of Christianity, Heroism, and Fate in Beowulf and Paradise Lost

The epic poem Beowulf, authored by an anonymous person, survives as the oldest epic in the Anglo-Saxon tradition and serves as an important influence for later literature.  Beowulf, the epic hero, possesses the traits required of all heroes in the epic tradition: courage, wisdom, strength, honor, honesty, good oration, and strong leadership.  Beowulf also falls victim to the same enemy of other tragic heroes – fate, or wyrd in the Anglo-Saxon language.  By contrast, John Milton’s epic tragedy Paradise Lost presents a different view of heroism and epic.  Milton’s tragic hero, be he Satan or Adam, does not possess all the typical qualities of an epic hero, nor does he share the typical downfall of an epic hero.  Instead, Milton’s heroes fail in their execution of their own free will, not as a result of fate.  As a result, the Christianity in both Beowulf and Paradise Lost appear to differ greatly from one another in their conceptualization of God and man, fate and free will, and true heroism.  How and why do they differ, and can these differences be reconciled within the framework of orthodox Christianity?

Beowulf, the hero of the poem Beowulf, possesses many qualities typical of the traditional epic hero.  The Geatish Beowulf leads his warriors to King Hrothgar’s realm of the Danes in order to save the land from the monstrous Grendel.  In this instance, Beowulf demonstrates his heroism by traveling to a foreign land in order to defeat a monster attacking a foreign people.  He illustrates his courage and willingness to do battle by volunteering for a conflict not his own.  Because Beowulf’s men choose to follow him into battle in this foreign land, his heroic trait of good leadership is also exemplified.  Furthermore, Beowulf already has a reputation as a fearsome warrior, which is necessary for an epic hero.  He demonstrates this supremacy in his three confrontations against Grendel, Grendel’s mother, and the dragon.  Beowulf characterizes his skills thusly:

I have suffered extremes

and avenged the Geats (their enemies brought it

upon themselves; I devastated them) (422-424).

Beowulf also exemplifies his heroic qualities in his sense of fair play and honor.  Because Grendel uses no weapons in combat, Beowulf chooses not to use any either, thus establishing an equal playing field in a hand-to-hand combat situation.  In his recitation of his swimming episode with Breca, Beowulf proves to Unferth and the other Danes that he is a physically strong man capable of swimming in heavy armor for multiple days and nights while slaying the sea creatures attempting to kill him (530-581).  This incident also epitomizes Beowulf’s skill as a strong orator – another important epic quality.  Beowulf is also a devout man who worships the Christian God.  Before his confrontation with Grendel, Beowulf declares:

[U]narmed [Grendel] shall face me

if face me he dares.  And may the Divine Lord

in His wisdom grant the glory of victory

to whichever side He sees fit  (684-687).

Beowulf shares the aforementioned epic qualities with epic ancient Greek and Roman heroes such as Odysseus and Aeneas.  Greek and Roman heroes worshipped a pantheon of pagan gods; Beowulf, in contrast, is monotheistic and worships the Christian God.  Notably, however, Beowulf retains influences from such pagan thought, exemplified by the emphasis on the epic hero, who is characterized largely by pride or confidence.  This notion contrasts with the Christian ideals of humility and servitude.  Pagan influences also remain evident in the emphasis placed on the importance of heroic deeds in order to avoid punishment in the afterlife and the lack of a clear conceptualization of a heaven or place of reward for the honorable to go after death.  In fact, Beowulf himself is not guaranteed a place in a “heaven” (if it exists):

Famous for his deeds

a warrior may be, but it remains a mystery

where his life will end, when he may no longer

dwell in the mead-hall among his own.

So it was with Beowulf, when he faced the cruelty

and cunning of the mound-guard.  He himself was ignorant

of how his departure from the world would happen  (3062-3068).

On the contrary, a hell or place of punishment does exist, and it claims Grendel’s “heathen soul” (851).  Taken all together, these factors imply the author or transcriber of Beowulf possessed a rudimentary knowledge of Christianity, most likely of the Old Testament alone.  In addition, the pagan influences in Beowulf suggest that some pagan ideology may have been maintained and colored the author’s understanding and interpretation of Christianity.

Similarly to other epic heroes, Beowulf’s life is strongly influenced and controlled by fate, which is referenced numerous times throughout the epic.  In fact, in traditional pagan epics, the events that color the lives of the heroes or lead to their downfalls are often portrayed as controlled or manipulated by the gods or the Fates.  In essence, the true tragedy in these epics results from the epic hero’s lack of control over an event in his life or his ultimate demise.  Following in this tradition, the conceptualization of death and fate in Beowulf is remarkably complex.  Early in the epic, Beowulf, while recounting his swimming episode to Unferth, states, “Often, for undaunted courage, / fate spares the man it has not already marked” (572-573).  This sentiment is echoed later in the poem when the scop claims that the grace of God may spare a man unmarked by fate (2291-2293).  However, the scop also states:

But death is not easily

escaped from by anyone:

all of us with souls, earth-dwellers

and children of men, must make our way

to a destination already ordained

where the body, after the banqueting,

sleeps on its deathbed  (1001-1007).

Though Beowulf, through his own courage and the grace of God, managed to escape death in his earlier conflicts against Grendel and Grendel’s mother, he cannot escape his fate when he faces the dragon.  According to William Cooke in his article, “Beowulf, like all heroes, had had to meet an unforeseen fate” (210).

By this point in the epic, Beowulf’s fate lies outside of his control and choosing.  In his article, Andrew Galloway writes, “[The Old English formula for dying]’s linguistic conservatism supports and even epitomizes the view that heroic choices are few and often fatal …death is precisely what a hero does not choose, although he may choose honor, which may entail dying” (198).  In other words, a hero’s ability to determine his own fate is limited insofar as he remains a hero dedicated to honor, glory, and bravery.  Theoretically, Beowulf could avoid his fated death if he chose not to battle the dragon; however, in so choosing, Beowulf would also lose his heroic status.  This paradox results in the epic and somewhat tragic conflict between fate and free will and virtue and vice in Beowulf.

As a result, Beowulf presents a complex view of fate and God’s sovereignty.  Some passages in the epic suggest that the two oppose one another, while others imply that God controls fate.  This conflict most likely results from the merging of the older pagan influences of the Anglo-Saxon culture with the newer Christian religion.  As aforementioned, evidence in Beowulf suggests that the author was familiar with the Old Testament of the Bible, which emphasizes God’s sovereignty and control over humanity and earthly matters.  Furthermore, many pagan religions emphasize the concept of fate.  In conclusion, the author of Beowulf appears to approach his understanding of the Christian God and His sovereignty through his understanding of certain pagan concepts like fate and heroism.

John Milton, the author of the epic tragedy Paradise Lost, views the interaction of fate and free will differently than the author of Beowulf, which is indicative of the culture in which Milton lived and worked.  As an English Christian, paganism affected Milton’s theology far less than the Christianity represented in Beowulf.  Contrary to Beowulf’s emphasis upon fate, Milton emphasizes the importance of free will, which impacts the portrayal of the epic hero, particularly concerning his control over his own choices and downfall. By these means, Milton attempts to “justify the ways of God to men” in Paradise Lost (26).

Many debate whether Milton intended Satan or Adam to be the hero of Paradise Lost.  Either character, however, differs from the traditional pagan conceptualization of an epic hero.  Satan, though a charismatic leader and excellent orator, possesses no virtuous and traditionally heroic qualities like courage, honesty, strength, or wisdom.  Arguably, Satan does possess strength, but it manifests in “the unconquerable will” or stubbornness (Milton 104).  He chooses to harden his heart against God, rebel, and remain in a state of unrepentant rebellion.  Satan declares:

Yet not for those,

Nor what the potent victor in his rage

Can else inflict, do I repent or change  (Milton 94-96).

In fact, these very acts demonstrate a deficit of wisdom on Satan’s part. As Adam instructs Eve later in the narrative:

Against his will he can receive no harm.

But God left the free will, for what obeys

Reason, is free, and reason he made right  (Milton 350-352).

In Milton’s opinion, God created everything, including mankind’s capacity for reason and knowledge; therefore, obedience to God is the truest expression of reason.  In his article, Anthony Low writes, “Freedom (we think) we easily understand; obedience is harder to accept.  Moreover, what Milton advocates is not forced but ‘willing obedience’” (351).  Unfortunately, the demons could not willingly obey God.  According to the demon Mammon:

This must be our task

In Heav’n, this our delight; how wearisome

Eternity so spent in worship paid

To whom we hate  (Milton 244-249).

Satan and the demons, however, share the fatal flaw of pride with many traditional epic heroes.  It is Satan’s pride that brings about his rebellion against God and his refusal to repent, preferring “Hard liberty before the easy yoke” (Milton 256).  This pride and the actions resulting from it branch directly from Satan’s own freedom to choose; he is not destined by God or by fate to fall into sin.

Adam as the tragic hero may also be examined in a similar light; Milton presents him in a manner more in keeping with a traditional epic hero.  As the first man and a sinless man, Adam is superior to all human beings who follow him.  Milton describes them as, “Two of far nobler shape erect and tall / Godlike erect” (288-289).  As such, he possesses all the virtuous qualities of mankind with none of the vices.  Adam’s fall, like Satan’s, comes about through no fault of God’s.  God did not create Adam with a sinful nature, nor did He predestine Adam to rebel and fall into sin.  On the contrary, Adam’s downfall was precipitated entirely by his own free will, his own choice to sin in order not to be separated from Eve.  When Eve presents the forbidden fruit to Adam after she partakes of it, Adam replies:

So forcible within my heart I feel

The bond of nature draw me to my own,

My own in thee, for what thou art is mine;

Our state cannot be severed, we are one,

One flesh; to lose thee were to lose myself  (Milton 955-959).

Because Adam did not trust in God’s provision for a new wife and was blinded by love for Eve, he chose to join Eve in sin and rebellion despite knowing the consequences.

Even Milton’s portrayal of Adam as the epic hero differs significantly from the ideal of a hero presented in Beowulf and other pagan epics.  Traditional heroic qualities associated with warfare are not emphasized in Paradise Lost, particularly for Adam who never engages in physical battle.  Unlike Beowulf, Adam is not presented as a brave warrior or even exceptionally physically strong.  Furthermore, the typical heroic quality of pride is largely lacking in Adam.  By contrast, in Paradise Lost, the Christian virtue of humility is more widely praised.  This shift to respecting humility indicates the pervasiveness of Christianity in the culture and the move away from pagan ideology.

Paradise Lost also differs from Beowulf in its presentation of God.  Though God is sovereign, He does not strictly control the fate of mankind; rather, He allows them to have free will.  With this free will, Satan and the other demons begin to view God as a tyrant, though they acknowledge God will “of his kingdom lose no part / by our revolt” (Milton 325-326).  In order to retaliate against God, the demons decide to corrupt God’s new creations: humanity (Milton 362-370).  When Satan tempts Adam and Eve into using their free will unwisely, he assumes he has won a great victory.  On the contrary, God in His sovereignty already has a plan in place for the salvation of humanity.  As a result, God’s omniscience and omnipotence do not rely on His ability to control humanity’s decisions; instead, they rely on God’s foreknowledge of these actions and decisions.

Therefore, the Christianity in Paradise Lost is influenced by the Old Testament, the New Testament, and the theories of past and contemporary theologians.  As a result, Milton’s Christian theology is more fully formed than the Christianity in Beowulf.  Milton presents a clear conceptualization of Heaven and Hell, separated from one another and from Earth (1035-1055).  Milton also adds a unique caveat to the location of Hell; Satan discovers “myself am Hell” as a consequence of his rebellion against God (75).  As in Beowulf, God is described as omniscient.  In his article, Benjamin Myers writes, “The grace of salvation is not an afterthought, but a gift of God which precedes even the need for salvation” (66).  However, unlike in Beowulf, God does not control the actions of mankind in order to achieve some fated outcome.  “According to Paradise Lost, human freedom operates independently of the divine will to so great an extent that the divine knowledge of the future cannot even be described as ‘immutable.’  God’s knowledge is subject to and influenced by the free actions of those creatures to whom he has granted freedom,” declares Myers (79).  Furthermore, the Christianity in Milton’s work provides humanity with some base moral guidelines as well as the promise of salvation.  In conclusion, Milton’s Paradise Lost provides a more complete, holistic Christianity than the Christianity in Beowulf.

Because Beowulf and Paradise Lost both contain Christian themes but present largely different views of Christianity, can the two works be reconciled within the realm of orthodox Christianity?  Is the Christianity in Beowulf too “paganized” to be compatible with true Christianity?  Though Beowulf is highly paganized, it can still be somewhat compatible with Milton’s depiction of Christianity when viewed in a certain manner.  In essence, Beowulf’s Christianity does not contradict the Christianity in Paradise Lost; the Christianity in Beowulf merely presents an incomplete picture of Christianity.

As aforementioned, the theology in Beowulf presents an interesting amalgamation of pagan and Christian ideology.  The reader, as a result, must learn to separate the influences from one another in order to achieve the clearest understanding of the work.  Pagan influences are very clear in the depiction of the epic hero and strong warrior archetypes.  However, there is also some basis in the Christian Old Testament to support the respect for those who are strong, bold warriors and leaders.  Though the Jewish King David was the youngest of his brothers, God chose him to be a powerful warrior and strong king – qualities that were also respected in the pagan Anglo-Saxon society.  Furthermore, pagan religions also emphasize the deities’ power over men and women.  Individuals are subject to the will of the gods and fate.  While this is certainly not a modern Christian idea, there is some evidence to support this type of thinking in the Old Testament, and the author of Beowulf may have seen this as an example of compatibility between the old paganism and the new Christianity.  In the Old Testament, the Jewish tribes were for some time under a theocracy, a direct rule by God.  As a result, it may have seemed to the author of Beowulf that God was directly controlling the lives of his people because of His direct action in their lives – an understandable conclusion from someone with a background in pagan ideology.  In conclusion, when the reader can assess the influences of paganism and Old Testament Christianity in Beowulf, he or she is more able to view the Christianity presented in a more compatible way with the Christianity presented in Milton’s Paradise Lost.

While Beowulf presents a comparably incomplete view of Christianity, Milton’s Paradise Lost is characterized by a more complete understanding of Christian ideology.  Christianity presents a type of hero different from the typical pagan hero and more in keeping with the example of the Christian New Testament’s Jesus Christ.  Christ did not participate in physical conflict, was a humble servant, and was executed willingly despite his total innocence in life.  These new qualities become the dominant characteristics of the heroic archetype in the Christian world.  In addition, Christians viewed God as sovereign and powerful, but they also accepted the concept of humanity’s free will.  Reading the Old Testament through this lens revealed that humanity always has the choice to obey or disobey God, even in the Old Testament theocracy.  Admittedly, different Christian denominations varied on the emphasis they placed upon free will (then and now), but Milton was a staunch advocate of the importance of free will in Christianity.  Milton believed humanity’s free will exempted God from blame for the existence of sin and evil – the idea around which he created Paradise Lost.

Taken together, Beowulf and Paradise Lost provide a fuller understanding of Christianity.  By examining the development of Christianity from Beowulf to Paradise Lost, one sees the growth in size and cultural importance the religion experiences, as well as its effect on the cultures in which it exists.  Christianity did not develop in a vacuum, and in some cases, was influenced by the pagan ideologies of recent converts.  Beowulf serves as a wonderful example of this cultural transition from paganism to Christianity.  Within this framework, the Christianity of Beowulf and Paradise Lost can be reconciled as orthodox Christianity despite their differences in epic heroism, the relationship between God and man, and fate and free will.

Works Cited

Cooke, William. “Who Cursed Whom, and When? The Cursing of the Hoard and Beowulf’s

Fate.”  Medium Aevum 76.2 (2007): 207-21. Academic OneFile. Web. 18 Oct. 2012.

Galloway, Andrew. “Beowulf and the Varieties of Choice.” PMLA 105.2 Mar. (1990): 197-208. Web.

18 Oct. 2012.

Greenblatt, Stephen, et al, eds. Vol. A. Beowulf. 8th ed. New York: W.W. Norton & Company,

2006. 31-97.  Print.

Greenblatt, Stephen, et al, eds. Vol. A. Paradise Lost. 8^th ed. New York: W.W. Norton &

Company, 2006. 726-852. Print.

Low, Anthony. “’Umpire Conscience’: Freedom, Obedience, and the Cartesian Flight from

Calvin in Paradise Lost.” The U. of North Carolina P. (1999): 348-65.

Academic OneFile. Web. 18 Oct. 2012.

Myers, Benjamin. “Predestination and Freedom in Milton’s Paradise Lost.” Scottish Journal of

Theology 59.1 (2006): 64-80. Academic OneFile. Web. 18 Oct. 2012.

Tradition or Innovation: The Relationship Between Art and Culture in My Name Is Red

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BTG, GTX, my scribblings

Tradition or Innovation: The Relationship Between Art and Culture in My Name Is Red

     Art, in all its forms and varieties, has existed throughout the millennia and been an important part of many diverse cultures.  From simple cave drawings to impressionistic painting masterpieces to Michelangelo’s famous sculpture of David, art has always been present in human society and provides modern man with some clues about the society in which it was created.  Different cultures produced different art forms and different styles within those forms.  Orhan Pamuk’s novel My Name Is Red details the separation between the Eastern, Islamic perspective of art and the Western, Christian perspective.  These differences in art and perspective result from the cultural and religious differences between the empire of the Ottoman Turks and the Venetian city-state.  In Pamuk’s novel, this conflict is depicted through the plight of the Turkish miniaturists who are torn between continuing the traditional Eastern methods of artistry and implementing the innovative Western methods.  Is one of these perspectives superior to the other, and, if so, which one?  Or, should a method based upon a middle ground between the two methods be advocated, and what would that style look like?

During the reign of the Ottoman Turks, art – especially renderings of people and animals – was frowned upon by the more strict and conservative Muslims.  Renderings of Muhammad, in particular, were, and remain, strictly forbidden due to perceived idolatry.  The creation of human images creates the possibility that men will fall into the dangerous sin of worshipping the image or the person in the image instead of focusing all praise and worship on Allah.  Indeed, if one could not read the Koran in a completely unadorned manner, then calligraphy was mostly acceptable.  The art of calligraphy was more honored in the Islamic culture than any other form of art.  The illumination of texts was a controversial topic during the time period – even when the illumination consisted of simple designs in the margins of the pages.  The most controversial art form of all was the illumination of texts by the miniaturists, in which illustrations of people and animals would be provided to accompany the texts.  In My Names Is Red, a group of miniaturists are secretly commissioned by the sultan to produce a book full of illustrations.  The miniaturists face many conflicts: between the two approaches of art, between obedience to the sultan or to Allah, and between tradition and innovation.

Apart from the idolatrous connotations of art, Muslims also believe that adopting a human perspective of an artistic creation is heretical.  Instead, the Muslim miniaturists attempt to create illustrations from the perspective of Allah.  In other words, the images in the picture are not arranged according to scale or any other type of organizational device.  It is ironic that the Turkish miniaturists are so concerned with committing heresy in their work by depicting the world as man sees it, that they do not consider the heresy in attempting to portray the world as it appears to God.  In order to paint the point of view of God, the artist must attempt to put himself in that mindset, must try to envision what it is like to be God and what He sees.  This, it seems, is the greatest heresy of all! It does not involve the worship of false idols; it involves man’s attempt to make himself into God, even if only for a brief amount of time.

In addition, some of the traditional Muslims in My Name Is Red believe that the creation of these images infringes upon Allah’s distinction as the Creator.  Allah, they believe, is the only one who can create, and painting these miniatures is playing with fire, essentially.  “Olive,” in an argument with Enishte Effendi, states, “On Judgment Day, the idol makers will be asked to bring the images they’ve created to life… Since they’ll be unable to do so their lot will be to suffer the torments of Hell… ‘[C]reator’ is one of the attributes of Allah.  It is Allah who is creative… No one ought to compete with Him.  The greatest of sins is committed by painters who presume to do what He does, who claim to be as creative as He” (My Name Is Red, 28).  Some of the chapters in My Name Is Red are narrated by various illustrations such as a dog, a tree, a coin, and the color red.  These illustrations speak to the power of creation, even when done on a lesser scale by mortal men.  Even art created by men can have far-reaching and unforeseeable effects on other people, and sometimes even on society as a whole.  Enishte Effendi recognizes this and tells “Olive,” “A great painter does not content himself by affecting us with his masterpieces; ultimately, he succeeds in changing the landscape of our minds.  Once a miniaturist’s artistry enters our souls this way, it becomes the criterion for the beauty of our world… [the Master of Isfahan] not only witnessed the fact that his work, instead of disappearing, actually proliferated and increased; he understood that everybody now saw the world the way he had seen it” (My Name Is Red, 28).  As a result, there is an element of danger in artistic endeavors, just as there are also elements of liberty, love, and inspiration.

Furthermore, the traditional Muslim miniaturists do not believe in introducing individuality and uniqueness into one’s work.  Because the art of miniatures is so tradition-based, each artist relies on the innovation, talent, and influence of the artists who came before.  According to “Butterfly,” one of the miniaturists commissioned to work on the sultan’s secret book, each artist is “beholden to the old masters for the perfection of his pictures” (My Name Is Red, 12).  In fact, “Butterfly” also believes that “imperfection gives rise to what we call ‘style’” (My Name Is Red, 12).  For the traditional miniaturists, style is what separates an individual artist from the centuries of tradition, and that is not viewed as a benefit. One past master miniaturist was notable because his works were not notable; he was accomplished enough to leave no individual style, and thus no clue to his identity, in any of his work.  In the end of My Name Is Red, the individual artistic style of the murderer of Elegant Effendi reveals his identity.  In essence, this fact further cements the negative opinion of style; it is something that reveals the artist, not for reward or recognition, but for retribution.

The Western Christian perspective of art differs quite significantly from the Eastern point of view presented in My Name Is Red.  According to the Turkish miniaturists, the Western practice of drawing, painting, and sculpting human figures is indulging in sinfulness.  It is idolatry; “After awhile we’d begin to worship a picture we’ve hung on a wall, regardless of the original intentions.  If I believed, heaven forbid… that the Prophet Jesus was also the Lord God himself… and even, that He could manifest in human form; only then might I accept the depiction of mankind in full detail and exhibit such images” (My Name Is Red, 20).  For Christians and Muslims alike, idolatry is a sin, but Christians seem to fear it or emphasize it less.  Throughout the history of the Christian church images have been used, though controversies have not been entirely avoided.  The Eastern Orthodox Church, for instance, uses icons as aids in worship, but this usage contributed to the schism between Eastern Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism.  The Western Church feared the propagation of idolatry due to the icons, but the Eastern Church believed they were beneficial and justifiable.  In the medieval era, churches also used stained glass, paintings, and other forms of artistry throughout the church in order to serve as a “poor man’s Bible.”  Essentially, the illustrations of the Biblical stories serve as a way for the illiterate to learn the gospel and to come to Christ.  In this way, such illustrations and depictions can be useful – even scriptural – and not idolatrous.

However, the depiction of human beings in Christian works did grow out of hand.  Rich patrons began requesting for their likenesses to appear in the work of master artists, even in scenes in which the individuals did not appear.  It became commonplace for the artist or the patron of the artist’s work to appear in a painting based on a Biblical scene.  This, the Turks thought, was the most outrageous type of pride and vanity.  Pamuk writes, “Portraiture had become such a contagion among affluent men…that even when they commissioned frescoes of biblical scenes and religious legends for church walls, these infidels would insist that their own images appear somewhere in the work” (My Name Is Red, 20).  For the Turkish Muslims, whose religion so thoroughly emphasizes humility, this type of self-entitlement and self-aggrandizement is unacceptable, offensive, and heretical.  Traditional miniaturists do not paint the exact portrait of a person in one of their pieces, but instead attempt to capture the essence of humanity.  “Butterfly” provides the reader with parables on the topic.  In the parable about a Khan and his Tartar concubine, the Khan is disturbed by a figure in a painting when the details of an image are changed to make it bear more resemblance to his lover.  As a result, the Khan attempts to make his lover jealous, but instead drives her to suicide.  Parables such as this prevent traditional Muslims from desiring to insert themselves in a work of art, contrary to the practice of the infidel Europeans.

Unlike the Muslims in My Name Is Red, the Christians also begin to paint using a certain perspective.  All the images in the work of art are arranged according to size, scale, and position in order to remain realistic.  In a way, this approach allows the viewer to participate in the work of art on some level.  The viewer experiences the painting from the point of view of a realistic observer, and the entire painting is based around that perspective.  In comparison to the Turkish miniaturists, the Venetian and Frankish Christians merely attempt to paint the world and all it contains from the perspective of mankind.  In other words, these Western painters do not attempt to put themselves in God’s place in order to view the world and portray it on canvas or in marble.  Remaining somewhat humble, at least in this area, the Western painters work mainly from human experience and human knowledge, and they do not try to reach for the viewpoint of God.

As a result, Christian artists also tend to have more lenient views about the subject of art as a whole.  Though some art and artists have been controversial, it has largely been accepted throughout Christianity.  Christians do not believe that man’s act of creation necessarily limits God’s own creation.  In fact, many Christians would argue that because God has first created, humanity has been given the ability to also create – to a lesser extent.  Art and other creative endeavors, therefore, are not frowned upon in Western society to the extent described in the Turkish culture of My Name Is Red.

Throughout My Name Is Red, the characters struggle to create and adopt the most appropriate, successful method of artistry, and each character arrives at a different decision through different methods.  The division occurs along the East-West and tradition-innovation polarities.  Elegant Effendi, a skilled miniaturist and the corpse who opens the novel’s narration, chooses to remain on the side of Eastern tradition.  Elegant Effendi does not approve of the secret book that some of the miniaturists are working on for the sultan, and he believes they are sinners and threatens to reveal the project.  By relying on Venetian strategies and not on traditional Muslim strategies alone, there is a fear that doing so will result in a decreased “purity” of the art and “reduce [the Muslim miniaturists] to being their slaves” (My Name Is Red, 28).  Pamuk reveals the Eastern culture’s fear and distrust of Western culture, and it is not without cause or merit.  Western culture often has a way of completely overpowering and subduing other people and cultures.  Elegant Effendi’s strict adherence to the traditional and Eastern method results in his murder, so one may conclude that in My Name Is Red Pamuk does not support this particular viewpoint.

Enishte Effendi, in contrast, supports the merging of the Western and Eastern philosophies of art.  In his estimation, “Nothing is pure… Two styles heretofore never brought together have come together to create something new and wondrous… To God belongs the East and the West.  May He protect us from the will of the pure and unadulterated” (My Name Is Red, 28).  He advocates a more moderate position because he is able to see and appreciate the positive aspects both sides have to offer.  This is also the position Pamuk advocates throughout the entirety of My Name Is Red.  The struggles of the miniaturists are indicative of the struggles of the Ottoman Empire as a whole.  In order to become more powerful and more respected, the Ottoman Empire must Westernize in some areas without completely ridding itself of its heritage.  Similarly, some of the miniaturists recognize that their art must also be Westernized if it is be to appreciated and preserved on a more wide-scale, international level.

Unfortunately, “Olive” discovers that he cannot draw well when he attempts to draw in the Western style; he can only draw as he has been taught.  Here, Pamuk makes a statement about the difficulty involved in merging the two cultures.  Because the miniaturists are only familiar with their style of art – a style that has been passed down for generations – they will struggle to adapt successfully to a new method.  For the empire as a whole, this is also true.  Pamuk subtly admits in the book that it will take years for the nation to “catch up” to the Western countries, and it may never happen completely.  For Pamuk, My Name Is Red uses the plight of the miniaturists to make statements about the larger issues in the Ottoman Empire and in present-day Turkey.  The miniaturists must come to understand that the most advantageous, most successful method is the one that combines their traditions with innovations.  It is important for the Turkish Muslims to respect and preserve their heritage and traditions without being too rigidly attached to them.  Progress and innovation, in art and society, cannot be ignored wholesale; on the contrary, they must be appreciated and applied in order for the continuation of the field in question.  The miniaturists’ illustrations are quickly becoming a dying art in My Name Is Red, while the Western painters’ works only continue to rise in prominence.  In order to maintain relevancy, the miniaturists must adapt to the changes.  This more moderate method will lead to greater longevity and success for the work of the Muslim miniaturists, and the same approach will yield similarly promising results for the Republic of Turkey, according to Pamuk.

 Works Cited

Pamuk, Orhan. My Name is Red, trans. Erdag M. Göknar (New York: Vintage Books, 2001). ISBN: 0-375-70685-2.

The Tale of Two Cities: The Influence of Augustine and Machiavelli on Modern Christianity

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BTG, my scribblings, philosophizing

Here is the final paper that I wrote for my philosophy class. I thought that I may as well post it here so that I could truly wrap up the course in my blog. This will be the second to last thing you will ever have to read about my summer classes, I promise! haha

The Tale of Two Cities: The Influence of Augustine and Machiavelli on Modern Christianity

     The idea of a separation between the visible and invisible, material and spiritual, is a concept humanity has developed and revised throughout the centuries.  From the religious beliefs recorded in the Old Testament to the ancient philosophers, mankind displays an intense interest in what – if anything – exists in the spiritual and immaterial realm.  Augustine, a Christian theologian of the early church and influenced heavily by Platonist thought, provides the Christian perspective on the issue.  In Augustine’s The City of God, he differentiates the city of God from the city of man and explicates the differences between the two.  Augustine’s description of the material and immaterial realms and their interaction is a unique one – a direct result of his Christian beliefs.  Conversely, Niccolo Machiavelli, a Renaissance-era Italian philosopher, views the two realms in a completely different way from the majority of his philosophical predecessors.  The contrast between Augustine’s philosophy on the two realms and that of Machiavelli is fascinatingly vast and stems from the presence or absence of a Christian religious foundation.

For Augustine, the separation between the earthly city and the city of God is by definition a religious separation.  The truest and most complete form of all the virtues exists only in the city of God; the earthly city is a mere shadow of the city to come.  The Supreme God is, in Aristotelian terms, the end toward which Christians journey.  “For He is the fountain of our happiness, He the end of all our desires… we tend towards Him by love, that we may rest in Him, and find our blessedness by attaining that end,” writes Augustine about the Triune God (City of God, X.3).

Furthermore, Augustine perceives virtue to be the true, original nature of mankind; corrupt human nature results from the Fall, which came through no fault of God’s.  Augustine adamantly protects God’s goodness and divinity with his doctrine of evil.  For Augustine, “evil has no positive nature; but the loss of good has received the name evil” (City of God, XI.9).  Not only is evil a loss, absence, and perversion of the good, it is not a creation of God, but a result of man’s misuse of free will.  Augustine describes the devil himself as “good by God’s creation, wicked by his own will” (City of God, XI.17).  As a result, men should strive toward virtue in order to glorify God and in order to avoid evil.  Virtue is not, however, for Augustine the ultimate path to a higher reality like it is for Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.  In fact, Augustine writes, “Salvation, such as it shall be in the world to come, shall itself be our final happiness.  And this happiness these philosophers refuse to believe in… and attempt to fabricate for themselves a happiness in this life, based upon a virtue which is as deceitful as it is proud” (City of God, XIX.4).  Though the virtuous life is a significant aspect of the life of a citizen of the city of God, Augustine recognizes the complete and utter inability for mankind to save itself (even through virtue) and realizes the absolute need for the salvation Christ provides.

In addition, Augustine also emphasizes the importance of the city of God in the lives of Christians.  Though Christians essentially have temporary “dual-citizenship” in the earthly city and the city of God, the Christian’s first loyalty should always be to the city of God, in Augustine’s opinion.  For the time being, the heavenly city is intertwined with the earthly city where it “calls citizens out of all nations” (City of God, XIX.17).  Christians, unlike the pagans, do not look to the earthly city for satisfaction and happiness; instead, they look ahead to the heavenly city for this fulfillment.  According to Augustine, “And this is the characteristic of the earthly city, that it worships God or gods who may aid it in reigning victoriously and peacefully on earth not through love of doing good, but through lust of rule.  The good use the world that they may enjoy God: the wicked, on the contrary, that they may enjoy the world would fain use of God” (City of God, XV.7).  The Christian in the earthly city should not be concerned with power or pleasure in the present world; he or she should only hope for the future full realization of the heavenly city.  This humility and hope for the things unseen are marks of the Christian pilgrimage through the city of man to the city of God.

Machiavelli, however, holds several views about the earthly city, the heavenly city, and virtue that differ from Augustine’s opinions.  In fact, Machiavelli’s philosophy deviates rather substantially from the majority of his philosophical predecessors.  First of all, Machiavelli sees no real distinction between the earthly realm and the heavenly realm.  Truthfully, he seems not to completely believe in a God or an immaterial realm, which greatly shapes his view of the earthly city.  In his opinion, only half of men’s lives are accounted for by fortune, while the rest is left up to man himself to determine (The Prince, XXV).  Therefore, Machiavelli dedicates the entirety of The Prince to discussing the most advantageous ways and means to gain and keep power in earthly cities and kingdoms.  Unlike Augustine, Machiavelli does not caution his readers to consider heavenly rewards or punishments first and foremost.

As a result of the de-emphasis on heavenly reward and right living in his philosophy, Machiavelli presents a rather cynical and maniacal view of the virtues.  For Machiavelli, human nature is not naturally virtuous.  On the contrary, he holds humanity in particularly low regard.  He writes, “And truly it is a very natural and ordinary thing to desire to acquire” (The Prince, III).  The Prince, therefore, contains an extraordinary amount of precautions about the rebellious and untrustworthy nature of one’s subjects, advisors, and the leaders of other nations.  In addition, Machiavelli provides advice to current and future leaders for how to handle these problems, and cruelty, in Machiavelli’s opinion, is not necessarily to be avoided.  Cruelties “well-used” are those used to defend the ruler’s position and power and are as short-lived as possible (The Prince, VIII).  According to Machiavelli, cruelties should be performed “all at a stroke… so that, being tasted less, they offend less” (The Prince, VIII).  Virtue, therefore, is something to be used to one’s advantage.  Machiavelli’s best estimation of virtue is a type of forethought that minimizes harm when the tides of fortune turn against a ruler.  He provides an example in which he represents fortune as a flooding river – the virtuous man is the one who built dikes and dams beforehand in order to divert as much negative influence as possible.  In this way, virtue can be thought of as the quality allowing a ruler to avoid bad fortune as thoroughly as possible.

Needless to say, Machiavelli does not hold the virtues in high regard because he does not believe that one can gain and maintain power through strict adherence to the virtues.  Therefore, it is important for a ruler “to learn to be able not to be good” (The Prince, XV).  In other words, the prince should be adept at maintaining the façade of virtuosity without being constrained by the reality of the virtues.  “A spirit disposed to change,” as Machiavelli describes in chapter XVIII of The Prince.  In Machiavelli’s opinion, virtue is useful insofar as it ingratiates a ruler to his citizens, and the appearance of virtue is useful in order to adapt to the changes of fortune and avoid the worst vices for a ruler.  Due to his controversial views of virtue, one will not be surprised that Machiavelli does not hold religion in high regard either.  Like virtue and vice, religion is simply another pawn for a ruler to use to his advantage as far as possible.  According to Machiavelli, “A prudent lord, therefore, cannot observe faith, nor should he, when such observance turns against him, and the causes that made him promise have been eliminated” (The Prince, XVIII).  Machiavelli uses “faith” here to describe faith in men or in God.  In other words, Machiavelli is the man Augustine describes when he writes that some men demonstrate disordered love and use God in order to enjoy the earth instead of using the earth to enjoy God.

Augustine in The City of God and Machiavelli in The Prince present two very different philosophies for living life, interacting with others, and the future of the human soul.  The philosophies are largely, if not absolutely, incompatible.  In recent centuries, Machiavelli’s philosophy has become the predominant one, with many people respecting The Prince and behaving in Machiavellian ways.  Though Machiavelli’s theories are not entirely unique to him, he popularized the type of “the end justifies the means” thinking that dominates modern American society and politics.  Augustine’s work, on the other hand, has become less popular – even amongst the Christian community.  Many modern Christians ignore or are ignorant of Augustine’s social theory for the Christian community and become too politically active or extreme, while others completely despair of the current societal atmosphere altogether.  In light of this, how should modern Christians apply Augustine’s philosophy to their lives in a predominantly Machiavellian world?

As aforementioned, one common error of the Christian life about which Augustine warns his readers is becoming too comfortable in the earthly city and settling down there instead of continuing on the pilgrimage.  Clearly, this does not apply only to modern Christians because Augustine wrote The City of God approximately eight hundred years ago.  Modern American Christians, however, have a uniquely political factor involved.  With the presidential elections looming, Americans begin to vigorously divide along the polarizing line of liberal versus conservative.  During these times, voters hear more about “the Christian right wing” than any other time.  In fact, different Christian denominations unify more during election season in order to thoroughly denounce the liberal agenda and lament the ungodliness of any candidate and his or her platform as the downfall of America.  They seem convinced that America needs a majority of Christian leaders in order for the country to be successful, and these Christians are determined to vote in the most Christian candidates possible into any position.

Augustine, however, would not support this line of thought or type of Christian behavior.  When Rome fell, it was a Christian empire, and Augustine wrote The City of God in order to defend Christianity from those who blamed it for the fall of Rome.  Augustine did not write The City of God in order to extol the virtues of a Christian nation; he wrote it in order to encourage Christians to continue looking ahead to the city of God and not to give too much thought to the city of man.  For Augustine, the earthly city is important only insofar as men and women are called out of it to be citizens of the city of God, which is currently intertwined with the earthly city.  In his opinion, Christians can be good citizens of their earthly cities mainly because they remove themselves from the political arena and focus on the superior, eternal city to come.  Augustine essentially advocates political indifference, apart from those laws inhibiting proper Christian worship.  In other words, modern Christians should practice a higher degree of political apathy instead of expending so much energy attempting to fix the earthly city.  Augustine sees no real need for Christians to be overly involved in the earthly city, and Machiavelli does not believe they can be truly successful within the political arena, anyway. Machiavelli is convinced that in order to really succeed in earthly politics, Christians could not adhere to the Christian morals, virtues, and lifestyle.  In conclusion, Christians must heed Augustine’s warning not to attempt to use God in order to enjoy the earth and earthly things.

On the other hand, Augustine does not believe Christians should so easily and completely despair of the earthly city.  Augustine strongly believes that Christians should obey the commandments Jesus emphasized: love the Lord your God, and love your neighbor as yourself.  For Augustine, this is true piety (City of God, X.3).  As a result, Christians are expected to help their fellow man.  Augustine writes, “To be innocent, we must not only do harm to no man, but also restrain him from sin or punish his sin, so that either the man himself who is punished may profit by his experience, or others be warned by his example” (City of God, XIX.16).  Clearly, Augustine does not advocate the complete indifference and separation from the world that some Christians strive toward.  Though Christians are not called to perfect the material world, they are called to care for and witness to people all over the globe.  For Augustine, these actions are one part of the Christian pilgrimage through the earthly city towards the heavenly city.  Machiavelli, however, has no concept of looking beyond the current world towards anything spiritual or eternal.  In The Prince, he shows that his interest is completely devoted to the earthly city, and it is completely against his philosophy to despair of the earthly city and to look ahead to something better.  Instead, according to Machiavelli, one who is discontented with the rule of a city should try to take power for himself and change his own fortune and situation.

In order for Christians to achieve the balance between the two cities, knowledge and appreciation of Augustine’s philosophy are required.  The City of God remains relevant in the lives of Christians in every era, including modernity.  Augustine provides suggestions for the proper way Christians are to interact with the earthly city and the city of God.  First and foremost, they are to recognize that they are merely pilgrims in the earthly city on the way to the city of God.  Next, Christians must separate themselves from the desire to become comfortable in the earthly city or to attempt to make it a more pleasurable place for them to be.  In doing so, the purpose of the earthly city would be lost, for it is meant to be only a shadow of the perfect city to come.  However, a Christian must never ignore his or her neighbor and be ever at the ready to love others in a Christ-like manner.  By doing so, the Christian is behaving appropriately in the earthly city while looking ahead to the city of God, where all hope is placed.

Works Cited

Augustine. Political Writings, trans. Michael W. Tkacz and Douglas Kries (Indianapolis, IN:Hackett, 1994). ISBN 0-87220-210-0.

Machiavelli, Niccolo. The Prince, trans. Harvey C. Mansfield (Chicago: University of ChicagoPress, 1998. ISBN 0226500446.